16. What are the different storage classes in C?
C has three types of storage: automatic, static and
allocated. Variable having block scope and without static specifier have
automatic storage duration.
Variables with block scope, and with static specifier have
static scope.
Global variables (i.e, file scope) with or without the
static specifier also have static scope.
Memory obtained from calls to malloc(), alloc() or realloc()
belongs to allocated storage class.
17. What is the difference between strings and character
arrays?
A major difference is: string will have static storage
duration, whereas as a character array will not, unless it is explicity specified
by using the static keyword. Actually, a string is a character array with
following properties:
* the multibyte character sequence, to which we generally
call string, is used to initialize an array of static storage duration. The
size of this array is just sufficient to contain these characters plus the
terminating NULL character.
* it not specified what happens if this array, i.e., string,
is modified.
* Two strings of same value[1] may share same memory area.
For example, in the following declarations:
char *s1 = “Calvin and Hobbes”;
char *s2 = “Calvin and Hobbes”;
The strings pointed by s1 and s2 may reside in the same
memory location. But, it is not true for the following:
char ca1[] = “Calvin and Hobbes”;
char ca2[] = “Calvin and Hobbes”;
[1] The value of a string is the sequence of the values of
the contained characters, in order.
18. What is the difference between const char* p and char
const* p?
In const char* p, the character pointed by ‘p’ is constant,
so u cant change the value of character pointed by p but u can make ‘p’ refer
to some other location.
In char const* p, the ptr ‘p’ is constant not the character
referenced by it, so u cant make ‘p’ to reference to any other location but u
can change the value of the char pointed by ‘p’.
19. What is hashing?
To hash means to grind up, and that’s essentially what
hashing is all about. The heart of a hashing algorithm is a hash function that
takes your nice, neat data and grinds it into some random-looking integer.
The idea behind hashing is that some data either has no
inherent ordering (such as images) or is expensive to compare (such as images).
If the data has no inherent ordering, you can’t perform comparison
searches.
If the data is expensive to compare, the number of
comparisons used even by a binary search might be too many. So instead of
looking at the data themselves, you’ll condense
(hash) the data to an integer (its hash value) and keep all
the data with the same hash value in the same place. This task is carried out
by using the hash value as an index into an array.
To search for an item, you simply hash it and look at all
the data whose hash values match that of the data you’re looking for. This
technique greatly lessens the number of items you have to look at. If the
parameters are set up with care and enough storage is available for the hash
table, the number of comparisons needed to find an item can be made
arbitrarily close to one.
One aspect that affects the efficiency of a hashing
implementation is the hash function itself. It should ideally distribute data
randomly throughout the entire hash table, to reduce the likelihood of
collisions. Collisions occur when two different keys have the same hash
value.
There are two ways to resolve this problem. In open addressing,
the collision is resolved by the choosing of another position in the hash table
for the element inserted later. When the hash table is searched, if the
entry is not found at its hashed position in the table, the search continues
checking until either the element is found or an empty position in the
table is found.
The second method of resolving a hash collision is called
chaining. In this method, a bucket or linked list holds all the elements whose
keys hash to the same value. When the hash table is searched, the list
must be searched linearly.
20. How can you determine the size of an allocated portion
of memory?
You can’t, really. free() can , but there’s no way for your
program to know the trick free() uses. Even if you disassemble the library and
discover the trick, there’s no guarantee the trick won’t change with the
next release of the compiler.
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