Piezoelectric and Piezoresistive Sensors
Introduction
Piezo is derived from the Greek word piezein, “to squeeze.” Piezoelectric materials produce a voltage whenstrained. Piezoresistive materials exhibit a change in resistance when subjected to pressure.
Piezoelectric Effect
When pressure (stress) is applied to a material it creates a strain or deformation in the material. In a piezoelectricmaterial this strain creates an electrical potential difference, a voltage. The effect is reversible. When an electricpotential is applied across two sides of a piezoelectric material, it strains. Both effects were discovered by Jacquesand Pierre Curie in 1880-1. The piezoelectric effect is found in materials with a specific electical crystallinestructure. These are known as piezoelectric materials.
Piezoelectric Materials
A piezoelectric material cannot be isotropic, or identical in all directions. If there was symmetry in the materialthere would be no electric polarization yield. The following figure shows three materials. The material in a) isisotropic and yields no resultant electric polarization when a force is applied. The materials in b) and c) yieldparallel and perpendicular polarizations respectively when a force is applied.
Figure 1. Examples of material polarizations with stress.
So if you exert pressure on certain crystals, the molecules will re-align and produce a charge across thecrystal. A charge can be read as a voltage. A piezoelectric crystal is like a capacitor that is pressure-sensitive.
Therefore: Pressure Crystal Voltage
Of the natural piezoelectric materials, the most frequently used are quartz and tourmaline. Of thesynthetic materials, those that have been more extensively used are not crystalline but ceramics. These areformed by many little tightly compacted monocrystals (about 1 micrometer in size). These ceramics areferroelectrics, and to
align the monocrystals in the same direction (i.e. to polarize them), they are subjected to a strong electric fieldduring their fabrication process. The applied field depends on the material thickness, but values of about 10 kV/cmare common at temperatures slightly above the Curie temperature (at higher temperatures they are too conductive). The Curie temperature or Curie point is when the material heats up hot enough so that its properties turn fromferromagnetic to paramagnetic. In other words, if a crystal is heated up above a certain temperature, the polaritiesof the monocrystals will return to random directions instead of all being organized in one direction. This creates alimiting factor of
temperature for piezoelectric materials.
Piezoelectric ceramics display a high thermal and physical stability and can be
Manufactured in many different shapes and with a broad range of values for the properties of interest (dielectricconstant, piezoelectric coefficient, Curie temperature, etc.). Their main shortcomings are the temperaturesensitivity of their parameters and their susceptibility to aging (loss of piezoelectric properties) when they are closeto their Curie temperature. The most commonly used ceramics are lead zirconate titanate, barium titanate, and leadniobate. Polymers are also used as piezoelectric materials. A polymer lacking symmetry known as polyvinylidenefluoride is common because it can be made
Into shapes that are impossible for solid materials.
Equations
The generated voltage from a piezoelectric material can be calculated from the following equation.
V = Sv * P * D
Where V = Piezoelectric generated voltage (Volts)
Sv = Voltage sensitivity of the material (Volt *meters / Newton) P = Pressure (N/m2)
D = thickness of material (meters)
Voltage sensitivity values are provided with the material when received from the manufacturer. Differentmaterials and different geometry cuts give different sensitivities.
Applications
Ultrasonic transmitters and receivers. Frequency references.
Temperature sensors (resonant frequency changes with temperature) Accelerometers (used with aseismic mass) (See discussion in section 5-3.3 in Carstens text). See notes on accelerometer calibrationin 9.7 and 9.8 DRM
Microphones and loudspeakers (small loudspeakers with poor audio characteristics =
Beepers)
Pressure sensor
Force sensor
Advantages
Low cost
High sensitivity
High mechanical stiffness Broad frequency rangeExceptional linearity excellent repeatabilityunidirectional sensitivity Small size
Limitations
The crystal gives off a voltage but it is not a battery. There is very little energy available.
Analogy: Could you move a car with 200 000 psi pressure?
Point of a needle 0.01” x 0.01” and push with 20 lbs = 200 000 psi high pressure but
low force
The impedance of the crystal is very high. Therefore we need to measure the voltage with a higherimpedance device to avoid draining the tiny store of energy that is there. The typical resistance and capacitancevalues of an 8 mm crystal are about 1015 and 10-15 Farads. These are extremely high impedances. This meansthat when we amplify the signal we must consider the capacitance of the lead wires and the input impedance of theamplifier. Normally in instrumentation design we ignore these factors because sensors generally have impedancesin the range of 103 rather than 1015 . In practice this means that we have a limited amount of timeavailable to take a fixed measurement before the charge drains away. If the measurement changes rapidly then
there is much less of a problem. IE the sensor has a very poor DC response but good AC
response.
Piezoelectric sensors also react to temperature as well as pressure. They must be operated in their designrange to maintain accuracy. Out of their design range they react so strongly to temperature that they can be usedas temperature sensors. The following figure illustrates this. As can be seen if the crystal is operated around 20°Cthen the temperature can vary a few degrees with minimal effect on the frequency. In this range we could use thecrystal as a frequency reference. Around 50°C the response to temperature is strong and somewhat linear. In thisoperating range we could use the crystal as a temperature sensor. The sensitivity is a function of temperature.
Figure 2. A graph of frequency change vs. temperature for a piezoelectric crystal.
The response of piezoelectric sensors drifts with temperature and if the temperature is too high (above theCurie point) the device no longer works. For example the Curie temperature for Quartz is about 550 C; forBarium titanate it is about 125 C.
Piezoelectric sensors work to very high frequencies, up to 100 KHz. This makes
them suitable for ultrasonic sensors (receivers) and actuators (transmitters). The frequency response is a functionof the size and cut of the crystal. Very small crystals respond into the MHz range and respond very strongly at aparticular resonant frequency. In this mode they are the primary timing devices of computers, watches and mostother modern electronic timing applications.
The characteristics of the crystal drift with age. It takes days to weeks for a
crystal to settle after it is cut and the characteristics can change during this time. Crystals age much more rapidlynear their Curie point.
Figure 3. This diagram shows that the output of the crystal drifts steadily for months and then tapers off to asteady value. Note the scale of the Y axis (ppm)
Piezoresistive sensors
As their name implies, piezoresistive sensors change resistance when pressure is applied. The development ofpiezoresistive materials was an outgrowth of semiconductor research conducted by Bell Telephone Laboratories inthe early 1950’s. This research eventually led to the transistor. Piezoresistive sensors are made from semiconductormaterials- usually silicon, with boron as the trace impurity for the P-type material and arsenic as the trace impurityfor N-type material.
In general, materials exhibit a change in resistivity with strain. For a
semiconductor, this change in resistivity with strain can be very large. Resistivity is a direct measure of thecharge carrier density.
The resistivity of a semiconductor material=
1 / [(electron charge)*(# of charge carriers)*(mobility of charge carriers)]
The effect of applied stress is to change the number and the mobility of the charge carriers within a material,thus causing large changes in resistivity. This resultant change in resistivity is called the piezoresistive effect. Theelectron charge and the # of charge carriers can be controlled during the manufacturing process by changing theamount and type of trace impurity added to the material. By controlling the manufacturing process, the material’scharacteristics can be easily reproduced.
Piezoresistive sensors can be manufactured in similar processes to electronic integrated circuits and can bemade extremely small with micromachining. They have been used in medical research to implant into tissue tomeasure bodily stresses (bed-sore
studies) and can be made small enough that they can be inserted into the brain with minimal cell damage.They can also be used to make strain gauges (gages?) that can measure stresses of N. They have also beenused to build micromachined accelerometers.
Compared to piezoelectric materials, piezoresistive materials have very high sensitivity and better lowfrequency response.
Strain Gages
Conceptually a strain gage is simple a resistive element that is stretched when strained. When the material isstretched it becomes longer (resistance increases) and the diameter degreases (resistance increases again). It istheoretically possible to build a strain gage of this type but practical problems arise; primarily the resistancechanges are very small and hard to measure and the gage becomes large and unwieldy. In order to magnify thestrain effect the gage is usually laid out in a concertina pattern. This gage clearly is most sensitive in the directionof longitudinal stretching.
Direction of maximum sensitivity
Electrical resistance strain gages are thin metal-foil grids that can be adhesively bonded to a surface. When thesurface is stressed, strain develops and is transmitted to the foil grid. The resistance of the foil grid changes inproportion to the load induced strain. A key problem in using strain gages is making sure the gage is firmly bondedto the surface so that the microscopic strains occurring in the material are faithfully transmitted into the straingage. This type of strain gage is not a piezoresistive sensor, as the material is not a semiconductor and the pressuredoes not directly affect the resistivity.
A strain gage exhibits a percent change in resistance that is directly proportional
to the strain applied.
Strain = dL/L
dR/R=Sg*Strain
Gage factor= Sg is the coefficient to convert strain to dR/R
The gage factor for most metals is generally about 2. Standard values of resistance for
strain gages are 350 ohms and 120 ohms.
The strain gage is generally used in conjunction with a Wheatstone bridge to
make a strain transducer. The maximum current rating of a strain gage is 25 mA. (250 mW forsemiconductors).
Types
Made from all kinds of different metals and alloys such as constantan, advance, karma, nichrome, andgermanium.
Since strain gages are very directional in their sensing. It is common to use a pattern of strain gages with severalgages on a single piece of foil oriented in different directions. The gage is bonded to the surface of the materialprior to the connection leads being
attached. It is common to use a separate strain relief pad near to the gage. The connection
is first made from the gage to the strain relief pad with very light gage wire and then between the strain reliefpad and the transducer cable.
Applications
Strain gages are often used in mechanical engineering and related disciplines. The expected strain in thematerial is calculated and then a suitable gage is selected and bonded on to the surface.
Strain gages are also often build into load cells. A load cell is a mechanical support for a system or structure withstrain gages bonded to its internal surface. It measures the strain and thus the force applied to the structure. This iscommonly used to measure weight. For example a weighbridge for trucks could be supported on load cells or atank of fluid
could be supported on load cells. When used in this manner care must be taken to ensure the load passes throughthe load cells and not through any other support structure and the load must pass vertically through the cell. IE wemust balance the load on the cells and
the cells will typically have rounded tops so that no side loads can be passed through.
Because load cells are built with strain gages, care must be taken not to break the bond between the gage andstrained surface. For this reason load cells and other strain gage applications cannot tolerate shock loading orsevere overloading. Load cells are typically
rated for an absolute maximum of 150% of nominal load. IE if you apply more than 150
Kgs to a 100 Kg load cell you are likely to destroy it.
Here are some other typical applications.
Tactile sensors in robots Measure torsion Measuring stress Measuring strain Measuringpressure Measuring force
Advantages
Bond excellently to most surfaces
Readily dissipates heat
Minimal sensitivity to transverse strain (perpendicular to intended direction) Small size
High frequency response
Rugged
High linearity
Low impedance
Good spatial resolution (measure strain at a point) Generally unaffected byambient conditions
Can be wrapped around curved surfaces unlike the piezoresistor.
Disadvantages
Resistance changes with temperature
Strain gage grid expands and contracts at a different rate than the surface it is attached to
Gage factor changes with temperature as well
Compared to piezoresistive sensors strain gages have much lower sensitivity (typical gage factor 2 vs. 100 forthe piezoresistive sensor).
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